Syntax Overview

In this module we have outined a few important features of Old English syntax which should allow you to tackle original texts.

Word Order

Word order in Old English is more flexible than in modern English due to its extensive system of inflections. Subject-Verb-Object is still the most common order, but Verb-Subject order occurs regularly in clauses introduced by adverbs such as þa - then or nu - now. In relative clauses introduced by the relative pronoun 'þe - which/that/who', the verb usually goes to the end of the clause. These three word orders are illustrated in the sentence below:'Se wicing eode to his scipe, þe on Temese muþan wæs, and þa ferde he to Lundene - The Viking went to his ship, which was in the Thames estuary, and then he travelled to London'. '.

Prose Style

In Old English prose, there are several features which have fallen out of usage in modern English such as the splitting multiple subjects, stacking of successive clauses introduced by the conjunction 'ond', and recapping on the use of adverbial phrases. In the passage below you should be able to spot examples of all these things.

Her on þissum geare sende ælfred cyning sciphere on Eastengle; sona swa hie comon on ðæm muþan þe Stufe gehaten is, þa metton hie .xvi. scipu wicenga, and wiþ ða gefuhton, and þa scipu alle geræhton, and þa men ofslogon - Here in this year King Alfred sent (a) ship-army to East Anglia; as soon as they came into the river mouth that is called Stufe, (then) they met 16 ships of vikings, and fought against them, and siezed all the ships, and killed the men.

Poetic Style

While the above rules are still found in poetry, all surviving Old English poetry is alliterative and its meter is determined by the number of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. The basic line consists of four stressed syllables and at least four unstressed syllables with a metrical pause known as a caesura between stresses two and three. In order to conform to Old English alliteration and meter, word order is often more fluid.

Poets also frequently use conventions such as kennings and appositives. Kennings are compound words which use more figurative language in place of a noun. Appositives are nouns or noun phrases that follow or come before a noun, and specify who or what that noun is. You can find examples of both in the following sentence: 'Het him yðlidan godne gegyrwan cwæð: he guðcyning ofer swanrade secean wolde maerne þeoden þa him wæs manna þearf - He ordered them prepare a good wave-crosser; he said: the war-king over swan-road he wished to seek, that mighty clan-chief, since he was in need of men.'

There's lots more to learn about Old English syntax, but the features discussed in this module will give you the fundamentals needed to read Old English texts. That said, it is important to remember that these are not hard and fast rules. You will occasionally come across Subject-Verb word order in subordinate clauses, and short sentences with few conjunctions.