Prose Style

There are several more features of the way that Old English clauses and sentences are woven together that may be unfamiliar, but which you will quickly get used to when you start translating Old English texts. One of these is the dropping of the subject in places where modern English would require one, particularly with certain verbs, and in constructions such as 'it is hot', where we use an impersonal subject. Another thing to watch out for is the linking of successive clauses with the conjunction 'and/ond' as well as with correlating pairs. Finally, some adverbial phrases can look intimidating, but function in much the same way as adverbs of time such as 'her' and 'nu'.

Dropping the Subject

We've learned so far that Old English syntax is more flexible than in modern English, with the Subject-Verb-Object order changing in different situations. But as an inflected language, the subject sometimes isn't needed at all, particularly if it is clear from the context. Examine the following sentence 'He eode eft ongean to þæm bearnum, wolde gewytan gif hie slæpende wæron - He went back again to the children, (he) wanted to see if they were sleeping'.

In the second clause of the sentence, we would expect either a coordinating conjunction (and), or a reiteration of the subject, but the Old English leaves it out as the subject is easily deduced from the context.

Repeating the Subject

It is also common for Old English sentence to repeat the subject in a way that might seem surplus to requirement. For example, in the sentence 'Eadig bið se wer se ðe hine ondræt god - Happy is the man (he) who dreads god', the subject is repeated almost immediately:

In translation, we can drop these repeated elements, as they are not necessary. However, they would probably have sounded perfectly natural to the reader of Old English prose, and are not an indication of poor style.

Splitting the Subject

In a sentence with multiple subjects such as 'The earls and their servants travelled to Canterbury' we would keep the subject together in the sentence. However, in Old English the subject is sometimes broken up: the sentence above might be written 'Þa eorlas ferdon to Cantwarabyrig, and hira þeowas'.

You'll also sometimes find objects broken up in the same way, and adjectives separated in a sentence from the noun they modify. Clauses introduced by 'and' also regularly leave out the subject, so pay attention to the inflections.

Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is a literary device that uses multiple repetitions of the same conjunction. Old English prose has a tendency towards long sentences with repeated use of both correlatives (such as 'þa...þa') and by sequences of coordinating conjunctions, particularly 'and/ond'. Examine the sentence, 'Hie ða eodon, ond gemetton þone assan, ond his folan, ond woldon lædan to ðæm hælende - They went then, and came upon the ass, and its foal, and wanted to lead (them) to the saviour''.

In this sentence we only have the subject 'they' stated at the start, and we have a coordinating conjunction used to link the two objects (the ass and the foal), as well as to introduce the next independent clause 'and wanted to lead'. Though this sentence is relatively short, this style can also appear in very long sentences. Examine the sentence: 'Betwux ðam ascuton þa awyrigedan gastas sume of þære nywelnysse wið min, mid byrnendum eagum, and of heora muðe and nosþyrlum stod stincende steam, and woldon me gelæccan mid heora byrnendum tangum, ac hie ne mihton þurh godes gescyldnysse me hreppan - In the meantime, some of the accursed spirits shot up from the abyss towards me, with burning eyes, and out of their mouths and nostrils came a stinking steam, and (they) wanted to grab me with their burning tongs, but they could not through God's protection touch me.'

The main difficulty with this sentence is the successive clauses introduced by 'and' and 'ac'. In modern English, it is likely the sentence would be split in two and the subject restated. However, remember that the inflections do a lot of work in Old English, and the succession of plural verbs makes it clear that the accursed spirits are the subject. There are a couple of other things to note in this sentence. One is that in the final clause we have the modal verb form 'mihton' at the start, and the infinitive at the very end of the clause - this is again very typical of Old English modal constructions. Also, the adverbial phrase 'Betwux ðam - meanwhile' has the same effect as adverbs such as 'þa' and 'nu', so the Subject-Verb order is reversed.

Adverbial Phrases

We have already learned that when an adverb such as 'þa', 'þider', or 'nu' starts a sentence or clause, the verb usually comes before the subject. This is also true when adverbial phrases start sentences. Examples of adverbial phrases include 'þy ilcan geare - In that same year...', 'On ðam seofoðan dæge - On the seventh day', 'Þa æfter þysum - then after this', 'On ðysse wucan on Wodnesdæg - In this week on Wednesday'.

In most cases the clause that follows will start with the verb in first position. Another common adverb of time is 'her', literally 'here', but meaning more like 'Here (in this year)'. Examine the sentences below: 'Her com Swegen mid his flotan to Norðwic - Here Sweyn came with his fleet to Northwich' and 'Fram þære halige rode dæige oð lenten, rædon þa geswustre hira bec - From the day of the holy cross to Lent, the sisters read their books'.

In both these cases, there has been a reversal of the subject-verb order in the main clause - the small word 'her' and the longer adverbial phrase 'Fram þære halige rode dæige oð lenten' are essentially acting in the same way as adverbs of place starting the sentence.